Criminology Essays Drug Crime Assessment

Criminology Essays Drug Crime Assessment A Critical Assessment of the Supposed Relationship Between Drug Use and Crime. Introduction In the United Kingdom and many other countries statistics show that there is a significant relationship between recreational drug use and crime (Bean, 2004). What is unclear, however, is the nature of the relationship between drug use and crime and this has resulted in much discussion. In particular the relationship between crime and the use of illegal drugs, such as heroin and cocaine has been a major area of research and debate. Therefore, this report will concentrate on the link between illicit drug use and crime. The definition of drug-related crime excludes violations of drug laws and includes acts of crimes that are committed by people who are using drugs or in the course of buying drugs or selling (Stevens, 2005). Several theories have been developed which attempt to establish what the relationship is between drug use and crime and these will be discussed. Drug use leads to crime This idea is based on the notion that drug use leads to and crime. Goldstien (1985) proposed the relationship between violent crime and drug use can be classified into three categories. Firstly, psycho-pharmacological i.e., the physical properties of the drug affect the users mind in a way that leads to violent behaviour. Secondly, systemic i.e., violent behaviour is the normal and expected behaviour of the drug scene culture. Finally, economic-compulsive i.e., the addictive nature of the drug leads the user to engage in violent behaviour to steal items in order to resell them to fund their drug habit. This is probably the most widely accepted link between drug use and crime (Stevens, 2005). Research used to support that drug use leads to crime relies on the assumption that a lot of crime is committed by people who are drug users. The research invariably falls into two types. Firstly, offenders who have been caught are tested for drug use. This scheme, called The Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring (ADAM) programme, has been implemented in England and Wales and in at least eight other countries (Stevens et al, 2005). The findings of ADAM show that a high proportion of people arrested tested positive for illegal drugs. For example, in 1998/9, 740 people arrested in England and Wales were tested for drug use and 69% of them tested positive, (Taylor, 2002). In addition, Ahmad and Mwenda (2004) state that 113,500 people in 2002 were dealt with by means of a caution or conviction for drug use. The second line of evidence to support the notion that drug use leads to crime is obtained from treatment studies. These studies assess the criminal activity of drug users who are undergoing treatment for their drug-use problem. For example, Best et al (2001) interviewed 100 dependent drug users who were receiving treatment and found 56% of the drug users engaged in acquisition crime. Both the above methods of research have been heavily criticised. Bean (2004), for example, points out that not all offenders use illicit drugs or are dependent on drugs. Also, not all dependent offenders commit crime. In addition, measures used to assess drug use can produce misleading results. One example is that urinalysis compares different drugs that are detectable in the urine for different lengths of time and this could bias the results obtained from such studies. Treatment studies have been criticised because they rely on self-assessment of offenders. This runs the risk of offenders exaggerating or minimising their use of drugs. In addition, treatment studies such as Best et al (2001) have failed to establish the sequence of the two events of drug use and crime. Knowing whether individuals committed crime before or after they started being involved in drug use is crucial in helping to establish whether drug use leads to crime. Allen (2005) addressed this issue by using sequence studies. Sequencing studies set out to establish the pattern of drug use and crime behaviour in the individuals receiving treatment for drug use. Allen (2005) found that out of a sample of 26 individuals that 23 had been arrested for criminal offending before using drugs and therefore there was no evidence that drug use leads to crime. Also, in another study Nurco (1987) found that criminals sometimes continue to commit crime after they have stopped using drugs. Allen (2005) also investigated why people became drug dependent. It was found that the development of dependency was partly because of both the normality of the crime and the use of drugs and partly because of important traumatic events that occurred in their lives, such as sexual abuse or bereavement. It was also found that many drug addicts attempted to successfully manage their drug habit without resorting to crime, such as gaining money by begging. Moreover, when they resorted to crime it was likely to be non-personal crimes such as shoplifting. In Allens view people exist within subcultures in which crime is acceptable and then at critical moments in their lives they become dependent on drugs. If drug use leads to crime then it has important implications because reducing drug use would in turn reduce the level of crime. It is also an extremely popular idea and in 2002 the UK government underlined their view that drug use does indeed lead to crime. The government implemented the Street Crime Initiative, which included making drug treatment available within 24hours for drug users who were arrested for street crime offences. The assumption was that treating offenders for their drug problem would break the link between drug use and street crime and therefore stop the cycle of re-offending. However, in light of the discussed criticisms the effectiveness of such crime prevention is highly questionable. Crime leads to drug use Just as there are views that drug use leads to crime there is also a view that crime leads to drug use. If such a relationship exists then this would also have important implications in the development of any polices: if crime leads to drug use then reducing drug use would not reduce crime, whereas reducing crime would reduce drug use. Three models exist to support that crime leads to drug use (Bean, 2004). Firstly, there is the subcultural theory, which suggests that individuals who are involved in criminal subcultures are more likely to participate in criminal and antisocial behaviour including drug use. Secondly, situational control theory suggests that crime allows the promotion of unrestricted conduct. Thirdly, self-medication suggests that individuals can have an underlying problem that is responsible for their criminal actions so therefore they take drugs to deal with the problem. The theory that crime leads to drug use, as with the view that drug use leads to crime, appears too simplistic. The evidence reviewed so far does not support the unidirectional causal relationship between drug use and crime. This has led to the development of an alternative theory that views the link between drug use and crime as a complex interaction between many causal events. The causal web theory The causal web view rejects the idea that crime leads to drug use and vice versa. Instead, the theory views the relationship between drug use and crime to be interconnected or both elements are affected by alternative variables. Bean (2004) suggests there are four types of theory related to the causal web model. Firstly, common origin theory suggests that drug use and crime develop from the same source, such as anti-social syndrome (Farrington 1997). Secondly, the reciprocal model where the relationship between drug use and crime are viewed as bi-directional i.e., both are dependent on each other and therefore mutually reinforced. Thirdly, the spurious or co-morbidity model that posits that drug use and crime occur in unison but this is by chance. Lastly, the policy model suggests that the link between drug use and crime is a result of the impact of the criminal justice policy. Many studies have failed to show any general link between drugs and crime (see da Agra, 2002, Byquist Olsen 1998). This supports the notion that there is a complex system of interactions between drugs and crime. The causal web theory, therefore, seems the best way to view the relationship between drugs and crime. The causal web theory recognises that many people who commit crime do use drugs but views the relationship between the two as extremely complex. Conclusion Recent findings suggest that theories supporting a unidirectional causal relationship between drug use and crime are over-simplistic. In contrast, the evidence strongly suggests that the relationship between drug use and crime is a complex one involving many interactions. This complexity must be considered if polices aimed at reducing drug-related crime are to be implemented effectively. Polices that only focus on one part of the drug-crime link are unlikely to succeed if another part is ignored. Future research is essential in teasing out the specific interactions between the relationship of drug use and crime and this will help in the development of effective strategies to deal with the issue. References Ahmad, M. Mwenda, L. (2004) Drug Seizure and Offender Statistics, United Kingdom, 2001 2002, Home Office Statistical Bulletin August. London: Home Office. Allen, J. Komy, E.L., Lovbakke, J. Roy, H. (2005) policing and the criminal Justice System-public confidence and perceptions: findings from the 2003/4 British Crime Survey. Home Office On-line Report 31/05. London: Home office. http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs05/bcs0304tech1.pdf Bean, P (2004) Drugs and Crime. Cullompton Willan Second edition. Best, D., Sidwell, C., Gossop, M., Harris, J. and Strang, J. (2001) Crime and Expenditure Among Polydrug Misusers Seeking Treatment. British Journal of Criminology, 41, p. 119 126. Bur, A (1987) Chasing the Dragon: Heroin Misuse, Dependency and Crime in the context of South London Culture. The British Journal of Criminology, 27 (4), 333-357. da Agra, C. (2002). The complex structures, processes and meanings of the drug/crime relationship. In S. Brochu, Cda Agra, M Cousineau (Eds). Drugs and Crime Deviant Pathways. Aldershot. Ashgate. Farrington, D (1997) Human Development and Criminal Careers in Maguire, M et al. The oxford Handbook of Criminology. Oxford. Goldstein, P (1985) The drug-violence nexus; a tripartite framework. Journal of Drug Issues (Fall), 493-506. Hayes, P (1993) a view from the probation service in Russell, J (ed) Alcohol Hayes, P Russell, J (ed) Alcohol and Crime, London: Mental Health Foundation. Nurco, D.W (1987) Drug addiction and crime: A complicated issue. British Journal of Addictions, 82, 7-9. Stevens A, Trace, M and Bewley-Taylor.D (2005) Reducing drug related crime: an overview of the global evidence. Beckley Foundation Drug Policy Programme. http://www.internationaldrugpolicy.net/reports/BeckleyFoundation_Report_05.pdf Taylor, (2002). I-ADAM in Eight Countries: Approaches and Challenges. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs.

The Colour Purple and The Yellow Wallpaper -- Goodman L. Approaching L

For Walker the use of language is to do with an expression of self in opposition to gender oppression, of presenting self in opposition to a language which is not your own. Explain how this statement informs your reading of The Colour Purple (TCP), and The Yellow Wallpaper (TYW). In TCP, written in first person narrative, Walker uses the epistolary style of writing, giving authority to the voice of Celie and enabling the reader to accept her as having real presence and experience. In her opening letter to God, it is obvious she has no self-confidence, crossing herself out with a line through ‘I am’ (p.3 TCP). Because her mother is so ill, Celie becomes a sexual commodity for her Pa, epitomising a male dominated society, where women accepted patriarchy. This epistolary style of writing was popular in the eighteenth century novel sentiment, morally edifying the reader, with authority being given to the protagonist, in this case, Celie. ‘Celie writes to God, for lack of any living person with whom to share her troubles’ (p.155 Literature and Gender (LG). She is not able to defend herself due to her multiple jeopardy, of being a woman, being black and being uneducated. Celie is a woman who, through being raped and beaten by her ‘Pa’, is ‘taught to fear men and devalue herself’ (p.55 LG). As her letters progress, she grows in confidence within and about her own language. In an early letter to God, written when her Pa stopped her going to school after he got her pregnant the first time and her younger sister continued to go, shows how she wanted to be educated, ‘I feel bad sometime Nettie done pass me in learnin’ (p.12 TCP). Later on, she meets Shug Avery, her husband’s mistress, who helps her find conf... ...aper and uses it to ‘liberate’ herself from the normal domestic role expected of her, and from the patronising husband’s language, such as ‘What is it little girl?’ (p.353 TYW). Through her hysteria, she interprets the patterns on the wallpaper with a female language which is deliberately illogical, Emotional, non-linear, intuitive, as opposed to rational and logical. She writes, ‘There is a recurrent spot where the pattern lolls like a broken neck and two bulbous eyes stare at you upside down’ (p.351 LG). Both women are using their own language against male authority. Bibliography Goodman L. Approaching Literature. Literature and Gender. Walker A. (1983) The Colour Purple. Great Britain The Women’s Press. Audio/TV Audio Cassette 2: Women and Poetry AC2121 Audio Cassette 3: Gender and Drama AC2122 TV 2 Alcott and Woolf, Gilman, and Walker.

Outline and Evaluate the Psychological Research Into the Link Between Stress and the Immune System Essay

The main function of the immune system is to protect the body from infectious agents such as viruses and other toxins. The immune system can fail us in two ways-either by, letting infections enter the body, or being over-active, so that it is the immune system itself, rather than an infectious agent that causes illness. Most studies of the relationship between stress and the immune system have focussed on acute stressors and have found a decrease in immune cell function. One study which relates to stress and the immune system was Cohan (1993). Cohen investigated the role of general life stress on vulnerability to the common cold virus. Three hundred and ninety-four participants completed questionnaires on the number of stressful life events they had experienced in the previous year. They also rated their degree of stress and their level of negative emotions such as depression. See more: argument essay format The three scores were combined into what Cohen called a stress index. The participants were then exposed to the common cold virus, leading to 82% becoming infected with the virus. . The findings were that the chance of developing a cold was significantly linked with stress index scores. A strength of this study was that it did measure health outcomes, showing a relationship between life stress and illness. This can be compared with studies that use measures of immune function rather than illness outcomes. Also, this was an indirect study in the sense that there were no direct measures of immune function. However it is supported by Evans and Edgington (1991) who found that the probability of developing a cold was significantly correlated with negative events in the preceding days. However there are many limitations. During the study participants should be constantly monitored to check for any reactions to the viral challenge which had affected their health and the scientific value of the study should be balanced against any psychological or physical distress to participants. Another study which looks at the link between stress and the immune system was a study carried out by Brady in 1958. He linked high levels of stress to increased hormone production and the development of ulcers. In an early study he placed monkeys in â€Å"restraining chairs† and conditioned them to press a lever. They were given shocks every 20 seconds unless the lever was pressed in the same time period. This investigation came to an abrupt halt when many of the monkeys suddenly died. After 23 days of 6 hours on, 6 hours off schedule the executive monkey died due to a perforated ulcer. He tried various routines, such as 18 hours on and 6 hours off, or 30 minutes on, 30 minutes off. However, no monkeys died from ulcers. He then tested the stomachs of executive monkeys on a 6 hour on, 6 hour off schedule, and found that stomach acidity was greatest during the rest period. Brady concluded that it was clearly stress, not the shocks that created the ulcers. One criticism made of Brady’s study in general was that the monkeys were not randomly selected, the â€Å"executive† was chosen because it was faster at learning an avoidance response. This may of course have parallels with the human world. Also, the fact that the study was carried out on monkeys means that the results cannot be generalised for humans. Also another limitation was that a more serious problem was raised in the research by Marshall et al (1985). They found strong evidence of another cause of stomach ulcers, a bacterium called Helicobacter pylori not stress related.

A Research Project Management Methodologies - 1627 Words

Reflection Today, Scrum methodology is one of the most adopted/ popular project management methodologies out there. It is recognised as a simple to follow framework, but effective in terms of productivity, scalability and flexibility with change. The scrum adopts an empirical approach which bases on the idea that the problem cannot be fully understood or defined. So the framework focuses on maximising the team’s ability to deliver quickly while adapting and responding to emerging requirements. I believe this is a good place to start as often most development projects are prone to change and it is extremely difficult to have a â€Å"perfect† requirement at the beginning. However, this doesn’t mean Scrum overlooks the importance of identifying requirements or scope, instead of trying to elucidate all requirements at once, it uses an iterative and incremental approach by adapting sprints in its system. During the first sprint which is sprint 0, the team brainstorms the product they are going to develop then creates a list of user stories and prioritise these user stories by playing planning poker. For our team, the planning poker has really helped everyone to be on the same page in terms of coming to understand how much effort each feature would take. This really minimises the confusion and what is expected of the other team members. Scrum really enabled us to envision the scope and requirements clearly creating user stories. In sprint 1, as we proceeded, we have discovered some ofShow MoreRelatedResearch Methodology On Agile Project Management1734 Words   |  7 Pages3. Methodology Chapter 3.1 Introduction to Methodology The purpose of this chapter is to describe the research methodology used in completing this dissertation. This chapter starts out by describing the initial research and literature review that was performed and then further describe with relevant research methodology. A research method is being selected and explained. A sample of questionnaire and interview questions can be obtained in Appendix. 3.2 Prestudy and Approach ( Literature Review )Read MoreProject Management Scheduling1657 Words   |  7 PagesTitle Successful Project Management Scheduling outcomes: A Theoretical Comparative Analysis of networking techniques between Event, Chain with other traditional methodologies Research Question Why it is important to conduct a comparative analysis of Event, Chain with other traditional methodologies and investigate how it contributes in being Successful scheduling techniques in Project Management discipline? Introduction to Dissertation Nowadays, Project scheduling plays lot of benefactorRead MoreExistence Of Agile Team Environment1482 Words   |  6 PagesHypothesis 1 H0: Existence of agile team environment will not help to increase the success rate of the project H1: Existence of agile team environment will help to increase the success rate of the project. Based on hypothesize one the One-Sample T-Test Output is presented below. This output consists of two parts: one of them is One-Sample Statistics and the other one is One Sample Tests. Result from The One-Sample Statistics is explained as sample size is presented as (N), mean, standard deviationRead MoreProject Management Msc. 7Pjmn009W Project Management Project.1391 Words   |  6 Pages Project Management MSc 7PJMN009W Project Management Project Author: Maria Chico Garrido Date: 06 March 2017 Version: 1.1 Project type: Academic Preferred Supervisor: Proposed Title: How does the use of formal project management methodologies in complex Home Automation projects contribute to project success? Main Deliverables/Milestones: Deliverable Date Project Mandate 09 March 2017 Project Brief: In depth literature review of formal project management methodologies and project success. BackgroundRead MoreComparative Study Of Waterfall And Rad1465 Words   |  6 PagesPMBOK key management areas. Executive Summary: Software development life cycle is a methodology for designing, building, maintaining information and industrial systems. (waterfall) The research report here covers brief understanding of waterfall and RAD model. Later on comparison of both the project management methodologies are done in context to the key nine management areas of pmbok. Based on the comparative study recommendations is given which will help to analyze which methodology should be usedRead MoreEditorial Management System For Research Journals1199 Words   |  5 PagesABSTRACT Editorial management system is a web based application used for the processing and review of scientific journal’s manuscript. The focus of the project is to computerize and automate the manually performed task of processing and reviewing a manuscript for publishing in a research journal. Online Editorial Management System for research journals will help the authors in fast and easy manuscript submission. He can also easily view the status of his already submitted manuscripts at anytimeRead MoreSupply Chain Management Essay957 Words   |  4 PagesThe first research publication presents guidelines on focus to the study one development efforts to enabling firms or companies to benefit from e-business in the (SCM) supply chain management. The type of presented resources allocation is based on exports opinions. The previous study (Christopher, 1998) it has identified that the tasks orientated, and interaction centred which focus on groups workload as an ideal methodology for exp loring the experience of professionals and experience describingRead MoreWeek 1 Case Studies HURD 7891039 Words   |  5 Pagesï » ¿Case Study: Lakes Automotive 1. How do companies combine methodologies? Answer: Companies combine methodologies by conducting research to determine the fastest and most cost effective method to move product and satisfy the customer; criticizing both advantages and disadvantages; asking for the opinions of the employees and managers, and/or deciding which phase the company is willing to keep. 2. How do you get employees to change work habits that have proven to be successful? Answer: In orderRead MoreMarket Research : The World Keeps Evolving Day By Day1272 Words   |  6 PagesLuan Bui 008971677 Spring 2016 SE172 Market Research As the world keeps evolving day by day, technology has become an essential thing in our daily lives. Many tech-companies have been established due to huge expectation from people who are always enthusiastic about new inventions. However, not so many companies could survive in very competitive markets like PC computing, software, hardware, etc. In the early 1990s, as PC computing began to proliferate in the industry, software development facedRead MoreQuality Management in Agile Comparison with Traditional Project Management1553 Words   |  7 PagesAgile Project management is one of the industries dominating methodology for project management in IT. It is an incremental and iterative way to manage the build and design activities for constructing an IT product, services, and project development in manner which is highly interactive and flexible. In this methodology, scope is defined in granularity that is appropriate with time horizon and checked with the agreement on each feature wi th the customer. In this methodology work steps are divided